Read Time:33 Minute, 14 Second

By William Van Zyl

Published on July 14, 2026.

Imagine the River Speaking

Imagine standing beside a river at dawn. Mist rises gently from its surface while the first rays of sunlight shimmer across the flowing water. Birds awaken in the trees, fish break the stillness below the surface, and the river quietly continues the journey it has followed for thousands of years.

Long before roads were built, before cities emerged, and before nations drew borders across maps, this river was already here. It carved valleys, nourished forests, sustained wildlife, and supplied fresh water to countless generations of people. Entire civilisations have flourished because of rivers. They have shaped cultures, inspired poetry, provided food, supported agriculture, enabled trade, and become symbols of life itself.

Yet despite everything rivers give us, humanity has often treated them as little more than resources to exploit. Around the world, rivers have been dammed, diverted, polluted, over-extracted, and reduced to industrial drains. Many of the world’s great rivers now struggle beneath the weight of human activity.

But what if we have been asking the wrong question?

Rather than asking “What can rivers do for us?”, perhaps we should ask:

“What do we owe the rivers that sustain us?”

This question lies at the heart of one of the most fascinating environmental debates of the twenty-first century.

Can a river possess legal rights?

To many people, the idea sounds extraordinary—even absurd. Rivers cannot vote, own property, or appear in court. Yet around the world, an increasing number of governments, Indigenous communities, judges, and environmental scholars argue that rivers should no longer be viewed merely as property. Instead, they should be recognised as living entities whose health deserves legal protection. This emerging legal philosophy, often referred to as the Rights of Nature movement, challenges centuries of environmental law by shifting attention from human ownership to ecological responsibility.

The concept is no longer theoretical. During the past two decades, countries including New Zealand, Ecuador, Colombia, and Spain have adopted legal frameworks that recognise the intrinsic value of nature or grant legal rights to particular ecosystems. These developments reflect a profound shift in humanity’s relationship with the natural world, one that acknowledges that healthy ecosystems are essential not only for wildlife but also for the survival and well-being of future generations.

Whether one approaches this question through science, law, philosophy, Indigenous knowledge, or religious faith, the underlying concern remains remarkably similar: How can we better protect the natural systems upon which all life depends?

This article explores that question through three distinctive worldviews. First, we journey to India, where the Ganges River is revered as sacred within Hinduism. Next, we travel to New Zealand, where the Whanganui River has become internationally recognised as the first river to receive legal personhood through groundbreaking legislation inspired by the Māori worldview. Finally, we consider what the Bible teaches about humanity’s relationship with creation and whether Christian theology supports protecting rivers through legal rights.

Although these perspectives differ significantly in their beliefs and traditions, each offers valuable insights into humanity’s responsibility toward the natural world. By listening respectfully to one another, we may discover common ground in our shared desire to protect one of Earth’s most precious resources—fresh water.

I include an abstract, keywords and highlights for scholars (APA Referenced):

Abstract

The question of whether a river can possess legal rights has become one of the most significant developments in contemporary environmental law and sustainability. This article examines the emerging concept of river rights through the lens of three contrasting yet complementary worldviews: Hinduism, the Māori worldview of Aotearoa New Zealand, and Christianity. The discussion begins with the Ganges River, exploring its sacred status within Hinduism alongside the environmental challenges created by rapid urbanisation, industrialisation, and pollution. It then considers the Whanganui River, the first river in the world to receive legal personhood under New Zealand’s Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017, highlighting the Māori concepts of whakapapa (genealogy) and kaitiakitanga (guardianship) as foundational principles for environmental management. Finally, the article investigates a biblical perspective on creation care, arguing that the Christian understanding of dominion is best interpreted as responsible stewardship rather than unrestricted exploitation. Drawing upon contemporary environmental science, sustainability principles, and the growing international Rights of Nature movement, the article demonstrates that although these three worldviews differ in theology and philosophy, they converge on the shared responsibility of protecting freshwater ecosystems. The article concludes that legal recognition of river rights is not merely a legal innovation but a reflection of humanity’s evolving relationship with the natural world. Long-term environmental sustainability will require collaboration among governments, Indigenous communities, scientists, educators, faith communities, and citizens, recognising that healthy rivers are essential for biodiversity, human wellbeing, and the prosperity of future generations.

Keywords: river rights, Rights of Nature, sustainability, Whanganui River, Te Awa Tupua, Ganges River, kaitiakitanga, whakapapa, Christian stewardship, environmental ethics, freshwater ecosystems, environmental law, creation care, Indigenous knowledge, sustainable development.

Highlights

Explores the global emergence of the Rights of Nature movement.
Compares Hindu, Māori, and Christian perspectives on rivers and environmental responsibility.
Examines the significance of New Zealand’s Te Awa Tupua legislation.
Reinterprets biblical dominion as responsible stewardship and creation care.
Demonstrates how diverse worldviews can help protect freshwater ecosystems.
Encourages collaborative environmental action based on shared responsibilities rather than shared beliefs.

The Sacred Waters of India

The Ganges River and the Hindu Worldview

Few rivers hold such profound spiritual significance as the Ganges River, known throughout India as Mother Ganga. Rising high in the snow-covered Himalayas and flowing more than 2,500 kilometres to the Bay of Bengal, the Ganges supports the lives of approximately 500 million people. It irrigates farmland, provides drinking water, sustains industry, and nourishes one of the richest cultural landscapes on Earth.

IMAGE: The Ganges (or Ganga) is a 2,525 km transboundary river flowing from the Himalayas in India to the Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh. It sustains a basin covering roughly one-fourth of India. It is deeply sacred in Hinduism but faces severe pollution and ecological challenges. Credit: The Kumbh Mela is a series of ritual baths by Hindu holy men and other pilgrims at the confluence of three sacred rivers, the Yamuna, the Ganges, and the mythical Saraswati, that dates back to at least the medieval period. Credit: Rajesh Kumar Singh / AP. LINK: Source – LA Times https://www.latimes.com/books/la-ca-jc-sudipta-sen-ganges-review-20190124-story.html

For millions of Hindus, however, the Ganges is far more than a river. She is revered as a living goddess whose waters possess the power to cleanse sin, purify the soul, and assist believers on their spiritual journey toward moksha—liberation from the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth known as samsara. Pilgrims travel from across India to bathe in her waters, believing that immersion in the sacred river brings spiritual renewal. Many families also scatter the ashes of loved ones into the river, trusting that this final act will help the departed attain eternal peace.

One of the most sacred locations along the river is Varanasi, one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities. Every day, thousands of pilgrims descend its famous stone ghats to pray, bathe, meditate, and perform funeral rites. For centuries, Varanasi has been regarded as the spiritual heart of Hinduism, a place where the physical and spiritual worlds meet in a unique and deeply meaningful way.

Yet this extraordinary reverence presents a painful paradox.

The river that millions worship as sacred has become one of the world’s most environmentally stressed waterways.

Each day, enormous volumes of untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, industrial waste, plastics, heavy metals, and other pollutants enter the Ganges. Population growth, rapid urbanisation, and expanding industry have placed unprecedented pressure on the river’s ecological health. While significant investment has been made through national programmes such as the Government of India’s Namami Gange Programme, restoring a river of such immense size and cultural significance remains one of the world’s largest environmental challenges. Progress has been made in expanding wastewater treatment, improving river monitoring, and reducing some forms of pollution, but many stretches of the river continue to experience severe ecological stress.

The contradiction is striking. How can a river regarded as holy simultaneously become one of the most polluted?

Perhaps the answer reveals something fundamental about human nature.

People often cherish what they believe to be sacred, yet good intentions alone cannot protect the environment. Genuine care requires practical action, sound governance, scientific understanding, and collective responsibility. Spiritual reverence must be accompanied by environmental stewardship.

This lesson extends far beyond India. Across the globe, societies are discovering that rivers cannot continue to absorb unlimited pollution while remaining healthy. Freshwater ecosystems are increasingly threatened by climate change, biodiversity loss, invasive species, excessive nutrient loading, plastic pollution, and unsustainable water extraction. Scientists warn that freshwater habitats are among the fastest-declining ecosystems on Earth, with significant consequences for both biodiversity and human well-being.

These growing concerns have prompted governments, courts, Indigenous communities, and environmental organisations to ask an unprecedented question:

Should rivers themselves possess legal rights that enable society to defend them before irreversible damage occurs?

Remarkably, one of the world’s most influential answers to that question emerged not in India, but in Aotearoa New Zealand.

The River Is an Ancestor – The Māori Worldview and Te Awa Tupua.

“Ko au te awa, ko te awa ko au.”
“I am the river, and the river is me.”
— Whanganui iwi proverb

The idea that a river could possess legal rights may seem revolutionary to many people. Yet for the Māori of Aotearoa New Zealand, the concept is neither new nor surprising. It is rooted in a worldview that stretches back centuries—long before modern environmental legislation or international debates about sustainability.

To many Indigenous cultures around the world, nature is not merely a collection of resources waiting to be used. It is a living community of which humanity forms only one part. Mountains, forests, oceans, birds, and rivers are interconnected through relationships that extend beyond biology into genealogy, spirituality, and identity.

Within the Māori worldview, this interconnectedness is expressed through the concept of whakapapa—the genealogy that links all living and non-living things. Humanity is not separate from nature but belongs within it. Rivers, mountains, forests, and oceans are regarded as ancestors that deserve respect because they are part of the same family.

This understanding fundamentally changes the way people think about environmental responsibility.

Instead of asking, “How can this river benefit us?”, Māori ask a different question:

“How do we honour and care for one of our ancestors?”

That simple shift transforms environmental management from ownership to relationship.

A River with a Living Identity

For generations, the Whanganui iwi have expressed their relationship with their river through one simple but profound declaration:

“Ko au te awa, ko te awa ko au.”
“I am the river, and the river is me.”

This statement is not symbolic poetry.

It reflects a deeply held belief that the well-being of the people and the river are inseparable.

If the river suffers, the people suffer.

If the river flourishes, the people flourish.

The health of one determines the health of the other.

This philosophy differs significantly from the Western legal tradition, in which rivers have historically been regarded as property that can be owned, bought, diverted, dammed, or otherwise exploited for economic benefit.

For Māori, the Whanganui River has never been property.

It has always been a living ancestor.

A Long Journey Towards Justice

The legal recognition of the Whanganui River did not happen overnight.

IMAGE: The 290 km Whanganui River—New Zealand’s third-longest—is historically and culturally iconic. Flowing from Mt Tongariro to the Tasman Sea, it made world history in 2017 by being the first waterway granted legal personhood, recognising it as an indivisible living entity. Te Awa Tupua is the legal name for the Whanganui River in New Zealand. Through the historic Te Awa Tupua Act enacted in 2017, the river was formally recognised as an indivisible, living whole and a legal person. This status encompasses the river from the mountains to the sea, along with its physical and metaphysical elements. Credit: Wiki.

It followed one of the longest legal negotiations in New Zealand’s history.

Following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi) in 1840, disagreements emerged regarding ownership, authority, and management of the Whanganui River. For more than 140 years, Whanganui iwi sought recognition that their relationship with the river extended far beyond questions of property ownership.

The issue was never simply about water.

It was about identity.

Culture.

History.

Justice.

The river was central to the iwi’s spiritual life, transportation, food gathering, traditions, and identity. Every bend in the river held stories passed from one generation to the next.

Eventually, after decades of negotiation between the Crown and Whanganui iwi, Parliament passed the Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017.

The legislation was internationally groundbreaking.

Rather than transferring ownership of the river, Parliament recognised something entirely different.

The Whanganui River itself became a legal person.

What Does Legal Personhood Mean?

When people hear the phrase “legal person,” misunderstandings often arise.

A river is obviously not a human being.

It cannot speak.

It cannot vote.

It cannot own a bank account.

Legal personhood simply means that the law recognises the river as an entity whose interests deserve independent protection.

Companies possess legal personhood.

Universities possess legal personhood.

Charitable trusts possess legal personhood.

None of these are human beings.

Similarly, Te Awa Tupua recognises that the river possesses its own identity, values, health, and wellbeing, which deserve legal consideration.

The legislation establishes that the river’s interests can be represented in legal proceedings and decision-making processes.

Perhaps even more importantly, it shifts the focus from ownership to guardianship.

Instead of asking “Who owns the river?”

The law asks,

“Who has the responsibility to care for it?”

Te Pou Tupua – The Human Face of the River

Because a river cannot represent itself in court or public life, the legislation created an office known as Te Pou Tupua.

Two people are appointed jointly.

One is nominated by the Crown.

The other is nominated by Whanganui iwi.

Together they speak on behalf of the river.

This shared guardianship is one of the most innovative features of the legislation.

Rather than placing authority entirely in government or entirely within Māori leadership, responsibility is shared.

It reflects partnership.

Dialogue.

Mutual respect.

Perhaps this cooperative model offers lessons extending well beyond environmental management.

In a world often divided by politics, culture, and ideology, co-governance demonstrates that very different groups can work together when they share a common purpose.

Kaitiakitanga – Guardians Rather Than Owners

Central to Māori environmental philosophy is the concept of kaitiakitanga.

Although often translated as guardianship, the word carries a far deeper meaning.

A kaitiaki is not an owner.

Nor is a kaitiaki merely a manager.

A kaitiaki accepts a sacred responsibility to protect something entrusted to their care for future generations.

The emphasis is not on exercising power.

It is on serving faithfully.

This philosophy aligns remarkably well with many modern sustainability principles.

IMAGE: Gateway of Kahurangi, Tapawera, New Zealand. Māori indigenous carving. The Gateway of Kahurangi is a striking carved wooden landmark located in Tapawera, New Zealand, acting as the welcoming entry point to the scenic Kahurangi National Park. Unveiled in 2014, it celebrates the region’s rich history, diverse landscapes, and local heritage. Creator image: Michal Klajban Link to source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gateway_of_Kahurangi,_Tapawera,_New_Zealand_%28cropped%29.jpg

Sustainability asks us to consider not only today’s needs but also the well-being of future generations.

Healthy rivers provide clean drinking water.

They sustain biodiversity.

They reduce flooding.

They recharge groundwater.

They support agriculture.

They nourish wetlands.

They provide recreation.

They enrich mental well-being.

They sustain entire ecosystems.

When rivers become polluted or degraded, these benefits gradually disappear.

The cost is eventually paid by everyone.

A River That Changed the World

The significance of Te Awa Tupua extends far beyond New Zealand.

Environmental lawyers, judges, Indigenous leaders, and policymakers from around the world now study the Whanganui model.

Its influence can already be seen internationally.

In Colombia, the Constitutional Court recognised the Atrato River as a legal entity, citing the need to protect both Indigenous communities and fragile ecosystems.

In Bangladesh, courts extended legal rights to all rivers in the country in response to severe environmental degradation and illegal encroachment.

In Spain, the Mar Menor Lagoon became Europe’s first ecosystem to receive legal personhood following widespread concern over pollution and ecological collapse.

Meanwhile, Ecuador remains the first country to include the Rights of Nature directly within its national Constitution, recognising that ecosystems possess intrinsic value independent of human use.

Each case differs in its legal details.

Yet all reflect a common philosophical shift.

Nature is increasingly being viewed not merely as property but as a community deserving respect, protection, and legal recognition.

Science and Indigenous Knowledge Walking Together

For much of modern history, Indigenous knowledge and Western science were often presented as competing ways of understanding the world.

Today, that perception is changing.

Scientists increasingly recognise that Indigenous communities possess generations of environmental knowledge accumulated through careful observation of landscapes, rivers, plants, animals, and seasonal cycles.

Likewise, Indigenous communities increasingly collaborate with scientists to monitor water quality, restore wetlands, improve biodiversity, and strengthen climate resilience.

Rather than competing, these knowledge systems complement one another.

Science provides data.

Indigenous knowledge provides a relationship.

Science measures change.

Culture explains why the change matters.

Together, they create a more holistic understanding of environmental stewardship.

More Than Water

Perhaps the greatest lesson offered by the Whanganui River is that rivers are far more than channels carrying water to the sea.

They carry history.

Memory.

Identity.

Culture.

Biodiversity.

Livelihoods.

Hope.

Every civilisation has depended upon rivers.

The Nile nurtured ancient Egypt.

The Tigris and Euphrates supported Mesopotamia.

The Jordan occupies a central place in biblical history.

The Ganges continues to inspire millions of Hindus.

The Whanganui River reminds us that rivers also shape identity itself.

When viewed through this lens, protecting rivers is not merely an environmental obligation.

It becomes a moral responsibility.

Looking Beyond New Zealand

The Whanganui River story demonstrates that environmental law is evolving.

Rather than relying solely on regulations that limit pollution, societies are beginning to ask deeper philosophical questions.

Can nature possess inherent value?

Can legal systems recognise relationships rather than ownership?

Can environmental protection become proactive instead of reactive?

These questions lead naturally into the final worldview explored in this article.

Long before environmental law emerged, the Bible described rivers as sources of blessing, renewal, healing, and life. From the Garden of Eden to the prophetic vision of the River of Life flowing from God’s temple in Ezekiel, Scripture repeatedly presents rivers as gifts entrusted to humanity’s care.

How should Christians understand humanity’s relationship with creation?

Does the biblical command to exercise “dominion” justify exploitation?

Or does it call believers to something altogether different?

These questions form the focus of the next section.

Created, Not Owned: A Christian Perspective on Rivers, Dominion, and Stewardship

“The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein.”
Psalm 24:1 (KJV)

Looking Beyond Ownership

As we have seen, Hinduism regards the Ganges River as sacred, while the Māori worldview recognises the Whanganui River as an ancestor. Although these perspectives arise from very different religious and cultural traditions, they share one important characteristic: they encourage people to respect rivers as more than mere natural resources.

How, then, does Christianity view rivers?

Does the Bible support the modern idea of granting legal rights to rivers?

The answer is not straightforward. Scripture never speaks of “river rights” in legal terms. Yet throughout the Bible, rivers are consistently portrayed as life-giving gifts from God—sources of blessing, provision, healing, beauty, and renewal. More importantly, Scripture teaches that the created world ultimately belongs not to humanity but to God Himself.

This distinction changes everything.

If the Earth belongs to the Creator, then humanity cannot rightly claim absolute ownership over it. We are not masters of creation in the unrestricted sense; rather, we are caretakers entrusted with something infinitely valuable.

The biblical question, therefore, is not whether a river possesses legal rights.

The deeper question is this:

How should God’s people care for God’s creation?

Dominion or Domination?

Few biblical passages have generated as much discussion within environmental ethics as Genesis 1:26–28.

God declares:

“Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth…”
Genesis 1:26 (KJV)

For centuries, some have interpreted the word “dominion” as permission to exploit Earth’s resources without limitation. During the Industrial Revolution, this interpretation often aligned with rapid economic expansion, intensive mining, deforestation, large-scale industrialisation, and unrestricted consumption of natural resources.

However, many biblical scholars today argue that this interpretation misunderstands both the language and the broader message of Scripture.

Dominion is not domination.

God’s authority is always exercised with justice, wisdom, compassion, and love. If humanity is created in God’s image, then our rule over creation should reflect His character.

A good king does not destroy his kingdom.

A wise shepherd does not neglect his flock.

Likewise, responsible dominion means caring for creation in ways that allow life to flourish.

This understanding aligns closely with what many Christians today describe as creation care—the conviction that protecting the natural world is an act of worship and obedience to the Creator.

The Garden as Humanity’s First Calling

The second chapter of Genesis provides an important insight that is often overlooked.

Before sin entered the world, God placed Adam in the Garden of Eden with a specific responsibility:

“And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it.”
Genesis 2:15 (KJV)

The Hebrew verbs translated as “dress” and “keep” carry rich meanings.

To “dress” the garden means to cultivate, work, or serve it.

To “keep” means to guard, protect, preserve, or watch over.

Together, they paint a picture that is remarkably similar to the Māori concept of kaitiakitanga discussed in the previous section.

Although these ideas arise from different worldviews, both describe humanity as guardians rather than owners.

The first occupation ever given to humanity was not industry.

It was caring for creation.

Rivers Throughout the Story of Scripture

Water flows like a silver thread through the pages of the Bible.

The opening chapters of Genesis describe four rivers flowing from Eden, watering the garden that God declared “very good.”

Throughout Israel’s history, rivers became symbols of life, abundance, cleansing, and divine blessing.

The Israelites crossed the Jordan River before entering the Promised Land.

Naaman was healed after washing in the Jordan.

John the Baptist baptised believers there in preparation for the coming Messiah.

Jesus Himself was baptised in the Jordan River before beginning His earthly ministry.

Again and again, rivers represent renewal.

They sustain both physical and spiritual life.

The Bible never treats rivers as insignificant.

They are gifts that sustain God’s creation.

Ezekiel’s River of Life

Perhaps the Bible’s most remarkable vision of a river appears in the prophecy of Ezekiel.

Writing during Israel’s exile, Ezekiel describes water flowing from beneath the Temple.

IMAGE: The River of Life — Flowing from God’s Throne (Revelation 22:1 NIV). “Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb.” — Revelation 22:1 (NIV)
This verse reminds us that eternal life is not just a promise, but a stream flowing directly from God’s presence, pure and everlasting.

At first, the stream is small.

Then it becomes ankle deep.

Soon it reaches the knees.

Then the waist.

Finally, it grows into a mighty river impossible to cross.

Yet this river performs something extraordinary.

Everywhere it flows, life appears.

Dead waters become fresh.

Fish multiply.

Fruit trees flourish along its banks.

Their leaves never wither.

Their fruit never fails.

The prophet writes:

“Everything shall live whither the river cometh.”
Ezekiel 47:9 (KJV)

What an astonishing image.

The river does not destroy life.

It creates it.

It heals.

It restores.

It nourishes.

It transforms barren places into flourishing ecosystems.

Whether understood literally, symbolically, or prophetically, Ezekiel’s vision reveals God’s heart for creation.

Healthy rivers bring life.

Contaminated rivers bring death.

Creation Declares the Glory of God

The Psalms repeatedly remind readers that nature is more than scenery.

Creation points beyond itself to its Creator.

David writes:

“The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handywork.”
Psalm 19:1 (KJV)

The natural world reflects God’s wisdom, creativity, beauty, and order.

Paul develops this idea further in the New Testament, teaching that aspects of God’s invisible nature are revealed through the created world (Romans 1:20).

If creation reveals something of God’s character, then caring for creation becomes more than an environmental issue.

It becomes a spiritual responsibility.

Polluting rivers is not simply a matter of poor environmental management.

It also represents a failure to respect something that bears witness to its Creator.

The Whole Creation Groans

One of the most profound environmental passages in the New Testament appears in Paul’s letter to the Romans.

He writes:

“For we know that the whole creation groaneth and travaileth in pain together until now.”
Romans 8:22 (KJV)

Paul describes creation as longing for renewal.

Although he is speaking primarily about the effects of sin and the future restoration of all things, the imagery is striking.

Today’s world bears visible scars.

Polluted rivers.

Degraded forests.

Species extinction.

Climate instability.

Plastic-filled oceans.

Contaminated groundwater.

Creation groans beneath the consequences of human choices.

Yet Paul’s message is ultimately one of hope.

The story does not end with decay.

It ends with restoration.

Loving Our Neighbour Includes Caring for Water

When Jesus summarised the Law, He identified two great commandments:

Love God.

Love your neighbour.

At first glance, these commandments may appear unrelated to environmental sustainability.

Yet consider this question:

What happens when rivers become polluted?

Communities lose access to clean drinking water.

Children become ill.

Farmers struggle to irrigate crops.

Fish populations decline.

Entire ecosystems collapse.

Future generations inherit damaged environments.

Environmental degradation is never only about nature.

It is also about people.

Protecting rivers, therefore, becomes an act of neighbourly love.

When Christians work to improve water quality, restore wetlands, reduce pollution, or advocate for sustainable resource management, they are not merely protecting nature.

They are serving people created in the image of God.

Can Christians Support River Rights?

Some Christians may wonder whether recognising legal rights for rivers conflicts with biblical teaching.

Not necessarily.

Scripture teaches that only human beings are created in God’s image.

It does not teach that rivers possess souls or moral agency.

However, legal personhood is not a theological statement.

It is a legal mechanism.

Its purpose is to provide stronger protection for ecosystems that cannot defend themselves.

From a Christian perspective, if recognising legal rights helps preserve rivers, prevent pollution, protect biodiversity, and promote responsible stewardship, many believers would argue that such laws are entirely consistent with humanity’s God-given responsibility to care for creation.

Others may reach different legal conclusions.

That diversity of opinion should be respected.

What remains clear, however, is the biblical mandate to protect the world God has entrusted to our care.

Created, Not Owned

Perhaps the greatest contribution Christianity offers to this discussion is the reminder that creation has an Owner.

That Owner is not the government.

Not industry.

Not individuals.

Not future generations.

Creation belongs to God.

Human beings are tenants rather than landlords.

Managers rather than masters.

Stewards rather than owners.

This perspective encourages humility.

It reminds us that every forest, mountain, ocean, and river ultimately exists because God spoke them into being.

If rivers belong to the Creator, then caring for them becomes an expression of gratitude, worship, and faithful stewardship.

Towards a Shared Responsibility

Although Hinduism, the Māori worldview, and Christianity arrive at different theological conclusions, they converge in one remarkable respect.

Each calls people to honour the rivers that sustain life.

Each recognises that humanity carries responsibilities alongside privileges.

Each challenges the selfish impulse to exploit nature without regard for future generations.

Perhaps this shared concern offers a foundation for cooperation.

The challenges facing the world’s rivers are too great for any one culture, religion, government, or scientific discipline to solve alone.

Protecting freshwater ecosystems will require collaboration built upon mutual respect, scientific understanding, wise governance, and a shared commitment to the common good.

In the final section, we will bring these three perspectives together and explore how diverse worldviews can coexist to protect one of Earth’s most precious gifts. We will also consider the future of the global Rights of Nature movement and what it means for building a more sustainable world.

One River, Many Voices: Finding Common Ground for the Future

“He that believeth on me, as the scripture hath said, out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water.”
John 7:38 (KJV)

Returning to the River

Imagine once again standing on the bank of a river.

The morning mist has lifted. Sunlight dances across the water, just as it has done for thousands of years. The river continues its journey—unconcerned by political boundaries, religious differences, or legal systems. It simply flows, quietly sustaining life wherever it goes.

It waters forests.

It replenishes wetlands.

It nourishes fish.

It supports farms.

It provides drinking water.

It shapes landscapes.

It carries stories.

And it reminds us of a profound truth:

Every human civilisation has depended upon rivers.

Without them, cities disappear, agriculture collapses, ecosystems fail, and cultures fade.

Perhaps this is why rivers occupy such a prominent place in human history. They have never simply been waterways; they have been the lifeblood of communities and the silent architects of civilisation.

Today, however, humanity faces a defining question.

Will future generations inherit rivers that are cleaner, healthier, and more resilient than those we enjoy today?

Or will they inherit waterways damaged by pollution, over-extraction, climate change, and neglect?

The answer depends not on the rivers themselves but on us.

Three Worldviews—One Shared Responsibility

This article has explored three very different perspectives on rivers.

At first glance, they appear to have little in common.

The Hindu pilgrim approaches the Ganges with reverence because it is regarded as sacred.

The Māori guardian approaches the Whanganui River as an ancestor with whom they share whakapapa.

The Christian views rivers as part of God’s magnificent creation, entrusted to humanity’s care.

Their beliefs differ.

Their theology differs.

Their traditions differ.

Yet beneath those differences lies an extraordinary point of agreement.

Each worldview teaches that rivers deserve respect.

Each rejects careless destruction.

Each calls humanity to act responsibly.

This common ground offers hope in an increasingly divided world.

Environmental protection does not require everyone to believe the same things.

It requires people to work together despite believing different things.

Respecting diversity while pursuing a shared purpose may be one of humanity’s greatest strengths.

Rights and Responsibilities

Throughout this article, we have considered the question:

Can a river have rights?

Perhaps an equally important question is:

Can humanity fulfil its responsibilities?

Legal rights alone cannot restore polluted rivers.

Court judgments cannot remove plastic from waterways.

Legislation cannot plant forests.

Acts of Parliament cannot reduce fertiliser runoff.

These actions require people.

Communities.

Scientists.

Farmers.

Governments.

Businesses.

Churches.

Schools.

Families.

Every citizen has a role to play.

Rights achieve little unless they are matched by responsible action.

Perhaps the greatest value of recognising river rights is not merely legal protection.

It is changing how society thinks.

Instead of seeing rivers as objects to exploit, we begin to recognise them as living systems that deserve careful stewardship.

That change in thinking may prove even more important than the legislation itself.

Rivers in an Age of Climate Change

The challenges facing rivers today extend far beyond pollution.

Climate change is altering rainfall patterns across the globe.

Some regions experience devastating floods.

Others endure prolonged droughts.

Melting glaciers threaten the long-term flow of many great rivers.

Warmer temperatures reduce water quality and increase harmful algal blooms.

Invasive species continue to disrupt fragile freshwater ecosystems.

Urban development replaces wetlands with concrete.

Growing populations demand ever greater quantities of freshwater.

According to the United Nations, freshwater is becoming one of the defining environmental challenges of the twenty-first century.

Protecting rivers is therefore no longer simply an environmental issue.

It is also an issue of public health.

Food security.

Economic stability.

Biodiversity.

Social justice.

International cooperation.

The future of humanity is inseparable from the future of freshwater.

Science and Faith Walking Together

For too long, science and faith have often been portrayed as opposing forces.

In reality, they answer different kinds of questions.

Science helps us understand how rivers function.

Hydrologists study water cycles.

Ecologists investigate biodiversity.

Chemists analyse pollutants.

Climate scientists monitor long-term environmental change.

Their work provides the evidence needed for wise environmental management.

Faith asks different questions.

Why should we care?

What responsibilities do we have?

What kind of world should we leave for future generations?

Science provides knowledge.

Faith provides moral purpose.

When these two work together, they become powerful partners in protecting creation.

Neither diminishes the other.

Both contribute to human flourishing.

Education: The Beginning of Lasting Change

As an educator, I have become increasingly convinced that the future of environmental sustainability will not be determined solely by governments or international agreements.

It will be shaped in classrooms.

Today’s students will become tomorrow’s engineers, architects, scientists, farmers, politicians, business leaders, and community volunteers.

The attitudes they develop toward rivers today will influence the decisions they make decades from now.

Environmental education, therefore, extends beyond teaching facts.

It cultivates values.

Curiosity.

Critical thinking.

Compassion.

Stewardship.

Hope.

When young people understand how rivers support biodiversity, regulate climate, sustain agriculture, and provide drinking water, they begin to appreciate that environmental responsibility is not someone else’s problem.

It belongs to all of us.

Perhaps one of the greatest gifts we can give the next generation is not merely knowledge about rivers.

It is a deep respect for them.

From Ownership to Relationship

One of the most remarkable developments in environmental thinking during the past fifty years has been the gradual shift from ownership toward relationship.

Historically, nature was often viewed primarily through an economic lens.

Forests produced timber.

Mountains contained minerals.

Rivers supplied water.

The oceans provided fish.

These remain important benefits.

Yet ecosystems are far more than collections of natural resources.

They are living communities whose well-being ultimately determines our own.

The Māori concept of kaitiakitanga reminds us that guardians protect what they love.

The Christian concept of stewardship reminds us that caretakers faithfully manage what belongs to another.

Modern ecological science reminds us that healthy ecosystems support every form of life.

Remarkably, these three perspectives converge upon the same practical outcome.

Protect nature.

Restore what has been damaged.

Leave the Earth in better condition than we found it.

A Future Worth Building

Perhaps the debate surrounding river rights is not ultimately about rivers.

Perhaps it is about humanity.

It asks what kind of civilisation we wish to become.

Will future generations remember us as the generation that continued polluting rivers while knowing the consequences?

Or will they remember us as the generation that changed course?

The generation that listened.

The generation that restored wetlands.

Reduced pollution.

Protected biodiversity.

Respected Indigenous knowledge.

Applied scientific understanding.

Valued clean water.

Worked together.

History has shown that societies are capable of extraordinary change when they recognise a shared responsibility.

The challenge before us is not beyond our ability.

It simply requires the courage to act.

One River, Many Voices

Although this article compares Hinduism, the Māori worldview, and Christianity, its message extends beyond religion.

The future health of our rivers depends upon cooperation.

Scientists.

Teachers.

Farmers.

Engineers.

Businesses.

Churches.

Iwi.

Community organisations.

Governments.

Young people.

Older generations.

Every voice matters.

Every action matters.

Every restored stream matters.

Every tree planted beside a river matters.

Every litre of pollution prevented matters.

Every child who learns to value clean water matters.

Protecting rivers is not solely an environmental task.

It is an expression of wisdom.

Justice.

Compassion.

Responsibility.

Hope.

Final Reflection

If rivers could speak, perhaps they would not ask for monuments or memorials.

Perhaps they would ask for something far simpler.

Clean water.

Healthy wetlands.

Living forests.

Thriving wildlife.

Wise management.

Responsible communities.

And perhaps they would remind us that every civilisation ultimately depends upon the gifts they quietly provide every day.

Whether we approach rivers through the lens of Hindu spirituality, Māori whakapapa, Christian stewardship, or scientific understanding, one truth remains beyond dispute.

Healthy rivers sustain healthy communities.

As we confront the environmental challenges of the twenty-first century, may we choose cooperation over conflict, stewardship over exploitation, and wisdom over indifference.

For rivers are more than waterways.

They are arteries of life.

Let us honour them—not merely with words or legislation—but through the choices we make every day.

After all, the greatest legacy we can leave future generations is not the wealth we accumulate, but the world we preserve.

References:

BBC News. (2017, July 7). India court says Ganges and Yamuna rivers are not living entities. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40537701

Berry, T. (1999). The great work: Our way into the future. Bell Tower.

Bosselmann, K. (2015). Earth governance: Trusteeship of the global commons. Edward Elgar.

Cullinan, C. (2011). Wild law: A manifesto for Earth justice (2nd ed.). Green Books.

Department of Conservation. (2023). Te Awa Tupua – The Whanganui River settlement.

The Holy Bible, King James Version. (n.d.). Genesis 1:26–31; Genesis 2:15; Psalm 19:1; Psalm 24:1; Ezekiel 47:1–12; Romans 8:19–22; John 7:38.

Kimmerer, R. W. (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants. Milkweed Editions.

Leopold, A. (1949). A Sand County Almanack. Oxford University Press.

New Zealand Parliament. (2017). Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017.

Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. (2023). Kaitiakitanga – guardianship and conservation.

Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. (2023). Māori creation traditions.

United Nations. (2024). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2024: Water for prosperity and peace.

United Nations Environment Programme. (2023). Freshwater ecosystem restoration.

UNESCO. (2024). United Nations World Water Development Report.

World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future. Oxford University Press.

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I include a link to the act: The Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui River Claims Settlement) Act 2017.

Link: https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2017/7/en/latest/#DLM6830851

Dear reader. Possible future articles and research might include:

Can Mountains Have Rights? (examining Mount Taranaki and other examples of legal personhood)
Who Owns the Forest? (exploring stewardship, Indigenous guardianship, and biodiversity conservation)
The Ocean Has No Voice (marine ecosystems, pollution, and the Rights of Nature movement)
The Garden and the City (connecting Genesis with sustainable urban design and architecture)
The Language of Creation (how different cultures understand the natural world)

Can a River Have Rights? Rethinking Humanity’s Relationship with Nature.

thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner

without the publisher’s permission, except for using brief quotations in a book review.

Published by Five House Publishing (New Zealand)

First Publishing, July 2026

More eBooks and articles are available at https://fivehousepublishing.com/

More about the author at http://williamvanzyl.com/

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